"If we restrict sacrament to certain liturgical rituals, it is logical to think of Baptism as the initial sacrament. If, however, we consider the fundamental sacramentality of all human experience . . . there is good reason for seeing human friendship as the most basic sacrament of God's saving presence to human life." Thus, Bernard Cooke in Sacraments and Sacramentality, justifies his treatment of Matrimony as perhaps the most basic sacrament in human experience. Through marriage, we are reminded of God's potential presence in all human relationships. The importance, which Cooke attaches to Matrimony, is reflected in the New Code of Canon Law where Matrimony receives more attention than any other single subject. While Cooke's work and the extensive treatment of Matrimony found in the Code are good examples of the rich reflection being done on the sacrament today, it is important to see how Matrimony has developed over the centuries to reach this point.
In the Old Testament,
marriage is most frequently treated as a patriarchal institution for the perpetuation of the tribe. However, late in the history of Israel, we can see signs of a growing sacramental awareness in the creation stories of Genesis and in the prophetic literature, (understood of course, in the broader notion of sacramentality). Many biblical scholars see in Genesis (1:27):God created man in the image of Himself,
In the image of God He created him,
Male and female He created them,
a perception of God's presence in the relationship between a man and woman. The prophetic literature beginning with Hosea, uses the marriage relationship as a symbol of God's covenantal love for Israel. Such a metaphor for God's love presupposes an appreciation for the covenental dimensions of the marriage relationship.
In the New Testament,
all three Synoptic Gospels record Jesus affirming the permanence of marriage. In both Mark and Matthew, Jesus makes reference to Gen. 2:24 which speaks of the union of man and woman as part of God's divine plan. Most scholars agree that this teaching of Jesus represents a significant change from the Jewish tradition of the time. Both of the leading rabbis during this period, Shammai and Hillel, disagreed on the appropriate grounds for divorce, but generally accepted that there were clear situations in which divorce was justifiable. Jesus appeared to reject this in favor of a radical affirmation of the sacredness of the marital bond--a sacredness which would be compromised by divorce. Much is often made of the famous exception clause in the Matthean text "but I say to you that anyone who divorces his wife, except for reason of porneia . .". The word "Porneia" may translate as "immorality", "indecency" or "fornication". The intent is unclear. However, recent Dead Sea Scrolls studies have introduced the possibility that "porneia" may refer to consanguinity, or the marriage of close relations. Whatever the case, it is clear that Christ saw marriage as not only a social institution, but a permanent covenantal bond.At first glance the Pauline tradition presents an ambivalent attitude toward marriage. I Corinthians, for example, seems to discourage Christians from marrying. This however must be read in light of Paul's expectation of an imminent Second Coming, an event which must relativize all other life commitments. Ephesians, on the other hand, compares the union of man and woman in marriage to that of Christ's relationship to the Church. Here we see the theological flowering of the Old Testament use of the marriage bond as an image of Yahweh's fidelity to Israel. Here also is an indication of growing appreciation in the Christian tradition for the sacramentality of marriage based on a covenant relationship between two individuals.
The Patristic period reveals remarkable diversity in Catholic understandings of marriage. One thing is clear--during this era there was no mandated religious ceremony required for valid marriages. Juridical concerns with regard to marriage were handled exclusively by the state. While consent and blessing of the bishop or presbyter was encouraged (e.g. Ignatius, Letter to Polycarp) there is no evidence that this was a common practice.
Attention was being paid to the theological aspect of the marriage relationship. Many of the Fathers defended marriage against the attacks of the Gnostics and later the Manichaeans. The apologetics, however, focused on procreation as the essential function of sexual relations and marriage. Augustine's justification of marriage in terms of procreation is well-known. Although this was his main emphasis, he also recognized that marriage expressed the social nature of humans. As such, marriage could be seen as a type of spiritual communion. Unfortunately, neither Augustine nor any of the other Fathers saw the connection between these two understandings.
One significant development which occurred in the Middle Ages, was the rise of ecclesiastical marriage ceremonies and legislation. Prior to this period, it was left to civil authorities to legislate marriages. The Church concerned itself with only the moral dimension of the marriage relationship. This changed, in part, because of a clash in traditions regarding matrimony. In the Roman culture, a marriage was legal and binding on the basis of consent between the spouses and their guardians. In the Frankish and Germanic traditions, a marriage was not considered binding until consummated by sexual intercourse. As these traditions blended, the problem of secret marriages arose. An individual who did not wish to enter into an arranged marriage would claim that consent had secretly been given to another. In the Roman tradition, this prior consent was considered binding. The Church therefore slowly began to recommend public consent given in the presence of a priest and witnesses. By the twelfth century, ecclesiastical wedding ceremonies incorporating this public witness, had become common in Europe. The Council of Trent made such ceremonies mandatory.
Throughout the Church's history, theologians have been somewhat skittish about the religious significance of the marriage institution. The attacks of the Albigensians and Waldensians on the goodness of sexuality, much like the Gnostics and Manichaeans of an earlier time, led the Church to speak explicitly of the sacramentality of marriage. It was included as a sacrament in Pope Innocent III's Profession of Faith in 1208 and was listed definitively by the Council of Trent in 1563.
In spite of the affirmation of marriage's sacramentality at Trent, the Church theologically continued to view marriage as a contractual agreement. The impression was given that the sacramental character lay in the contract itself. The husband and wife each had certain rights and responsibilities. The primary function continued to be the procreation of children. Nonetheless, Pope Pius Xl's encyclical CASTI CONNUBII (1930) speaks of the "mutual faithfulness of husband and wife" as the "second blessing" of marriage.
Twentieth century theology
has had a profound impact on the Church's understanding of marriage. Personalist philosophies have influenced such theologians as Edward Schillebeeckx to see the sacramentality of marriage in the interpersonal relationship between husband and wife rather than in the marriage contract. Bernard Cooke has spoken of marriage as the paradigm of Christian friendship which therefore has symbolic significance for all human relationships. Karl Rahner saw in the marriage relationship a unique sign of the Incarnation. This incarnational dimension is revealed in the radical self-giving between the spouses. Marriage then provides one more way in which the presence of Christ is manifested in the world. Biblical scholars also contributed to the development by calling the Church to return to the covenantal imagery of the Scriptures.The Second Vatican Council
was not blind to these developments. Contractual language was passed over in favor of more covenantal language (See Gaudium Et Spes, #47-52). While the importance of the propagation of life as an integral function of the marriage relationship was maintained, it was not set over and above what the Council called "the true practice of conjugal love". The Council emphasized that as a sacrament, Matrimony is an expression of faith. Baptism in and of itself does not guarantee a proper disposition for the celebration of other sacraments. This insight was the impetus for the Church's growing concern for adequate marriage preparation. Finally, the Council teaches that the sexuality of the marriage relationship goes beyond the biological to embrace the whole person. The symbolic power of intercourse is found not only in the openness to bring forth life but in the binding together of man and woman in a covenant of mutual self-giving.That these new insights have contributed to an enriched appreciation of the sacrament is evidenced in the success of Marriage Encounter and various other family life movements. The fruits of movements such as these bring to the Church an even greater experience of the presence of Christ in our midst through marriage.